cerita lucay..

Pada suatu hari,  Joni yang baru kelas 3 SD pulang lebih cepat...
Ibu : "Jon, kok jam segini udah pulang?"
Joni : "Iya dong Bu... Karena hanya Joni mah yang mampu ngejawab pertanyaan Pak Guru.  Bahkan Joni dapet bonus libur 2 hari Bu, Hebat kan???"
Ibu: "Waaa hebaaaaatnya anak Ibu ... coba kasih tau Ibu pertanyaan apa itu?"
Joni  : "Gini Bu prtanyaan Pak Guru : SIAPA YANG LEMPAR KAPUR KE KEPALA SAYA"
Ibu :@#@!!
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Ada pria dapet SMS dari wanita, "Datang dong Mas ke sini, mumpung tidak ada siapa-siapa". Si Pria langsung pergi ke rumah si cewek, pas datang beneran tidak ada siapa-siapa!!! hiiiyyyy
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Inget ngga waktu dulu kita naek mikrolet rame-rame? Elo kuarin muke loe, dan gua kuarin pantat gue? Eh…dikira orang kita kembar..!!hehehe…
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Pasien : Dok, tolonglah sembuhkan penyakit saya. Saya sering berjalan di waktu tidur.
Dokter : Ini kotak yang bisa menyelesaikan persoalanmu. Setiap malam, ketika Anda sudah bersiap untuk tidur keluarkan isi kotak itu dan taburkan di lantai sekeliling tempat tidurmu.
Pasien : Kotak apa ini, Dok? apakah sejenis serbuk penenang?
Dokter : Bukan. Ini kotak paku payung.
Sorry nih, sore2 gini mau ngeganggu, aku mau minta tolong nih, kalo lagi ga sibuk, kalo bisa dan ga keberatan. Kalo gak ngerepotin, tolong hapusin sms ini dong !
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Suatu kali ada seorang polisi menangkap preman yang menyamar jadi polisi gadungan.Polisi kemudian bertanya kepada preman tersebut.
"Mengapa kamu memakai seragam polisi?"
Sang preman dengan enteng menjawab,"Loh,bapak saja yang polisi bisa menyamar dengan berpakaian preman, lalu mengapa preman tidak boleh menyamar jadi polisi??"
Polisi

Pacaran Jaman dulu VS Jaman Sekarang

In Info Ringan on June 9, 2011 at 7:31 pm

 

 

 

 

 

 

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Lagi Naksir-naksiran ?
Jaman dulu : Sok2 pinjem buku, pinjem catatan. Balikinnya pake disampulin, ditempelin puisi cinta atau teks lagu Kangen nya Dewa 19 yg lagi ngetop. Berharap target baca :p
Jaman sekarang : Semua status di FB bakal di-like dan di-comment dengan sangat manis, meskipun status yang bersangkutan sangat2 ga mutu dan sangat2 ga penting.
Niat telpon
Jaman dulu : Tanya nomer telpon ke temen satu geng si target. Kalo udah dapet, telp pura2 tanya pe-er atau mau pinjam catatan. Itu juga telp nya sembunyi2 kalo rumah lagi pada kosong, malu ketauan orang rumah kalo kita lagi sukaan sama seseorang :p. Telp juga ga bisa lama2 karena telp bayarnya mahal. Lewat 10 menit pasti ortu mondar-mandir di tempat kita telp kalo mau telp di telp umum, pura2 nukerin duit dulu di mbak2 penjaga game dingdong. Tuker duit seribu, yg buat maen cuma 1 keping 100 perak biar ga curiga kalo tuker duitnya cuma buat telp di telp umum sebrang jalan.
Jaman sekarang : Tanya nomer hp, ga butuh telp rumah. Risiko kalo telp ke rumah doi ntar diinterogasi bapaknya yg seremnya naudzubillah. Kalo udah dapet nomer hapenya, sms aja dulu. Ga pede kalo langsung telp. Diawali dengan topik ga guna seperti,”lagi ngapain?”. Kalo ga dibales rasanya pengen nelen hape bulet2 sambil dicocolin sambel dikit… Kalo gayung bersambut, sms bakal berlanjut ke telp2an. Apalagi sekarang tarif seluler makin murah, terutama kalo pake provider yg sama.
Niat interlokal
Jaman dulu : Nungguin bubaran film layar emas di rcti. Karena udah kadung cinta, meski pacar pindah kota pun komunikasi harus lancar. Setelah jam hemat telp deh. Itu juga ga berani telp dari rumah karena udah ada larangan dari ortu. Jadinya malam2 jalan cari wartel. Udah dibelain nunggu malam, jalan lumayan jauh, ternyata wartelnya tutup… tapi ada juga wartel yg bukanya sampe larut malam dan makin malam malah makin ramai. Persis kyk agen porkas yg lagi nungguin pengumuman nomor yg menang
Jaman sekarang : Apa itu interlokal? Telp ya telp aja kaleee langsung ke hape. Ribet amat telp musti nunggu malam :p
Titip salam lewat radio
Jaman dulu : kalo mau Jam 2 siang sepulang sekolah udah standby di depan telp. Padahal acara request dan salam2an baru mulai jam 3… secarik kertas bertuliskan nama2 sahabat di sekolah yg mau disalamin udah tertulis rapi, jangan sampe ada yg kelupaan. Mulai dari unyil, usrok, cuplis, melani, pak ogah, pak raden, buk bariah semuanya disebut. Ga ketinggalan request lagunya Puput Melati yang judulnya Aku Anak Sehat. Spesial salam buat ucrit… ilu imu inu… demikian yg tertulis di kertas itu. Sebelom acara request dimulai, tangan udah mulai pencet2 nomer telp stasiun radio yg dimaksud. Tapi nadanya udah sibuk mulu. Dan begitulah seterusnya dalam 2 jam ke depan, jari2 berlomba memencet nomer telp yg tak kunjung tersambung juga… (hal yg sama juga terjadi kalo ada quiz di radio yg berhadiah tiket gratis nonton )
Jaman sekarang : Cukup sms aja, atau bisa via BBM, wall FB, twitter. Telp cuma buat yg pengen eksis aja tiap hari suaranya nongol di radio. Quiz2 di radio sekarang juga bisa melalui cara yg sama.
Cari kost-kostan
Jaman dulu : Pasti tanya kostnya ada telpnya atau ga. Tiap habis subuh biasanya seisi kost ga tidur, berharap ada telp dari kampung. Kalo ada telp dari kampung dan disuruh pulang pasti digosipin mau dijodohin. Susah jaga rahasia kita lagi deket sama siapa, wong telp bersama juga. Mau punya gebetan, punya selingkuhan, baru putus, baru jadian… seisi kost pasti langsung update kabarnya
Jaman sekarang : kalo cari kost Pasti tanya kostnya ada internet nya atau ga. Lebih parah lagi, tanya kost nya campur atau ga. Boleh ajak temen nginep atau ga… *sloorrph*
Kirim-kiriman surat
Jaman dulu : Ke gramedia langsung ke bagian fancy, pilih2 set amplop dan kertas surat yg wangi warnanya pun merah hati dan bergambar Hello Kitty. Tidak lupa membeli boxy agar tulisan rapi dan mudah dibaca oleh tambatan hati. Meski sering telat, tp kehadiran surat selalu dinanti. Untung Pak Pos sadar diri bahwa bukan dirinya yg dinanti oleh penghuni kost2an putri, tetapi sepucuk surat dari masing2 kekasih hati.
Jaman sekarang : Email aja gan. Ketik dulu yg rapi di word, upload foto2 di FB, kabarin dia via sms kalo email udah dikirim.
Pas Hari Raya
Jaman dulu : Lagi2 gramedia jadi tujuan untuk pilih2 kartu lebaran. Beragam kartu lebaran yg berbeda desain dan ukuran dipilih untuk teman2.
Jaman sekarang : kalo Hari Raya Sms aja gan. Beli pulsa yg banyak atau beli kartu baru yg kasi promo SMS gratis. Kirim dah smsnya ke semua nomor yg ada di phonebook.
Ribut sama pacar
Jaman dulu : Berhari-hari ga telp atau ditelp. Ribut lebih banyak langsung tatap muka. Bisa di rumah, bisa di tempat umum dan jadi tontonan gratis. Kalo putus juga kabar ga cepat tersebar.
Jaman sekarang : Berantem via sms sampe inbox penuh. Mata udah ngantuk banget juga doi masih sms terus lanjutin brantem. Tidur ga tenang, bangun sebentar langsung cek hp lagi ada sms baru atau missed calls atau ga. Ga cukup di situ, status di FB yg tadinya married atau in a relationship… tau2 jadi single atau open relationship. Perubahan status seperti ini yg kemudian jadi celah para oportunis. Hahahaha…
Chatting
Jaman dulu : Janjian dulu via telp. Biasanya untuk yg LDR nih. Diatur jadwal rutin tiap hari apa dan jam brapa. Jauh2 ke warnet sambil bawa2 disket 3.5 inch segebok, kalo dibawa jalan di dalam tas bisa bunyi klotak2 kyk tukang patri panci lagi lewat. Chat pake mIRC karena belom punya email sendiri, makanya ga bisa akses yahoo messenger juga.  Kalo salah satu meleset jadwal chat nya… bisa dipastikan bakal ribut panjang tuh…
Jaman sekarang : Mau di mana aja bisa. Hape kita2 kan udah canggih gitu, ga kyk jaman om2 atau tante2 yg masih primitif. Sekarang mau chat sambil boker pun bisa cin…
Mau ke WC
Jaman dulu : Masuk WC kaki kiri dulu, keluar WC kaki kanan dulu
Jaman sekarang : kalo mau ke WC Update dulu dong di foursquare. Jangan sampe posisi mayor of WC kos2an tergeser sama penghuni kost yg laen.
Pas sekolah
Jaman dulu : Biar doi senang, dibeliin komik dragon ball / serial cantik kesukaannya. Sayangnya doi ga sabar baca di rumah, langsung dibaca di kelas. Langsung deh disita sama guru. Mana harus urusan sama BP pula…
Jaman sekarang : Gara2 satu kelas tuker2an video Briptu Norman via bluetooth…. semua hape yg disalahgunakan saat jam pelajaran disita sama guru.
Ngajak nonton konser musik
Jaman dulu : Nonton MK (malam kesenian) sekolahan sebelah aja, mumpung bintang tamunya Pure Saturday.
Jaman sekarang : “pokoknya kita harus nonton Incognito nih yang… ntar dikira kita ga ngerti musik lagi”. Sampe di sono mereka cuma bisa senyum2 bego sambil goyang2in kepala. Emang aslinya ga ngerti musik. Asal bisa gaya di depan temen2 mereka… “nih semalam gw habis nonton Incognito ama yayang gw. Ga kyk elo yg cuma bisa goyang2in tangan nonton BBB nyanyi lipsync di Dahsyat”
SUMBER :
http://qnoyzone.blogdetik.com/index.php/2011/05/23/intermezzo-pacaran-dan-pdkt-versi-jadoel-versus-jaman-online/

penyakit vertigo

Vertigo adalah perasaan seolah-olah penderita bergerak atau berputar, atau seolah-olah benda di sekitar penderita bergerak atau berputar, yang biasanya disertai dengan mual dan kehilangan keseimbangan. Vertigo bisa berlangsung hanya beberapa saat atau bisa berlanjut sampai beberapa jam bahkan hari. Penderita kadang merasa lebih baik jika berbaring diam, tetapi vertigo bisa terus berlanjut meskipun penderita tidak bergerak sama sekali. Benign Paroxysmal Positional Vertigo. Benign Paroxysmal Positional Vertigo merupakan penyakit yang sering ditemukan, dimana vertigo terjadi secara mendadak dan berlangsung kurang dari 1 menit. Perubahan posisi kepala (biasanya terjadi ketika penderita berbaring, bangun, berguling diatas tempat tidur atau menoleh ke belakang) biasanya memicu terjadinya episode vertigo ini. Penyakit ini tampaknya disebabkan oleh adanya endapan kalsium di dalam salah satu kanalis semisirkularis di dalam telinga bagian dalam. Vertigo jenis ini mengerikan, tetapi tidak berbahaya dan biasanya menghilang dengan sendirinya dalam beberapa minggu atau bulan. Tidak disertai hilangnya pendengaran maupun telinga berdenging.

PENYEBAB Tubuh merasakan posisi dan mengendalikan keseimbangan melalui organ keseimbangan yang terdapat di telinga bagian dalam. Organ ini memiliki saraf yang berhubungan dengan area tertentu di otak. Vertigo bisa disebabkan oleh kelainan di dalam telinga, di dalam saraf yang menghubungkan telingan dengan otak dan di dalam otaknya sendiri. Vertigo juga bisa berhubungan dengan kelainan penglihatan atau perubahan tekanan darah yang terjadi secara tiba-tiba. Penyebab umum dari vertigo: Keadaan lingkungan - Motion sickness (mabuk darat, mabuk laut) Obat-obatan - Alkohol - Gentamisin Kelainan sirkulasi - Transient ischemic attack (gangguan fungsi otak sementara karena berkurangnya aliran darah ke salah satu bagian otak) pada arteri vertebral dan arteri basiler Kelainan di teling - Endapan kalsium pada salah satu kanalis semisirkularis di dalam telinga bagian dalam (menyebabkan benign paroxysmal positional vertigo) - Infeksi telinga bagian dalam karena bakteri - Herpes zoster - Labirintitis (infeksi labirin di dalam telinga) - Peradangan saraf vestibuler - Penyakit Meniere Kelainan neurologis - Sklerosis multipel - Patah tulang tengkorak yang disertai cedera pada labirin, persarafannya atau keduanya - Tumor otak - Tumor yang menekan saraf vestibularis.

GEJALA Penderita merasa seolah-olah dirinya bergerak atau berputar; atau penderita merasakan seolah-olah benda di sekitarnya bergerak atau berputar.

DIAGNOSA Sebelum memulai pengobatan, harus ditentukan sifat dan penyebab dari vertigo. Gerakan mata yang abnormal menunjukkan adanya kelainan fungsi di telinga bagian dalam atau saraf yang menghubungkannya dengan otak. Nistagmus adalah gerakan mata yang cepat dari kiri ke kanan atau dari atas ke bawah. Arah dari gerakan tersebut bisa membantu dalam menegakkan diagnosa. Nistagmus bisa dirangsang dengan menggerakkan kepala penderita secara tiba-tiba atau dengan meneteskan air dingin ke dalam teling. Untuk menguji keseimbangan, penderita diminta berdiri dan kemudian berjalan dalam satu garis lurus, awalnya dengan mata terbuka, kemudian dengan mata tertutup. Tes pendengaran seringkali bisa menentukan adanya kelainan telinga yang mempengaruhi keseimbangan dan pendengaran. Pemeriksaan lainnya adalah CT scan atau MRI kepala, yang bisa menunjukkan kelainan tulang atau tumor yang menekan saraf. Jika diduga suatu infeksi, bisa diambil contoh cairan dari telinga atau sinus atau dari tulang belakang. Jika diduga terdapat penurunan aliran darah ke otak, maka dilakukan pemeriksaan angiogram, untuk melihat adanya sumbatan pada pembuluh darah yang menuju ke otak.

PENGOBATAN Pengobatan tergantung kepada penyebabnya. Obat untuk mengurangi vertigo yang ringan adalah meklizin, dimenhidrinat, perfenazin dan skopolamin. Skopolamin"> Skopolamin terutama berfungsi untuk mencegah motion sickness, yang terdapat dalam bentuk plester kulit dengan lama kerja selama beberapa hari. Semua obat di atas bisa menyebabkan kantuk, terutama pada usia lanjut. Skopolamin dalam bentuk plester menimbulkan efek kantuk yang paling sedikit. Pertanyaan : Dok, saya sering merasakan bingung/mau jatuh setelah atau sedang mengendarai kendaraan bermotor [mobil/motor], rasanya sakit sekali, apakah saya mengalami vertigo? Apakah penyebabnya? Apa solusinya? Terima kasih atas jawabannya. Thanks Kusworo Jawaban: Dear Sdr. Kusworo, Terimakasih atas pertanyaannya. Sebelum menjawab apakah perasaan bingung atau mau jatuh yang Kusworo alami itu termasuk vertigo atau bukan, ada baiknya kita bahas terlebih dahulu tentang vertigo. “Vertigo is a reeling sensation, feeling about to fall. An illusion of movement, most commonly a sensation of spinning.” Sebenarnya apa itu vertigo? Istilah vertigo, atau yang disebut juga dizziness, giddiness, dan lightheadedness adalah adanya sensasi gerakan atau rasa gerak dari tubuh atau lingkungan sekitarnya dengan gejala lain yang timbul, terutama dari jaringan otonomik yang disebabkan oleh gangguan alat keseimbangan tubuh oleh berbagai keadaan atau penyakit. Vertigo adalah perasaan seolah-olah penderita bergerak atau berputar, atau seolah-olah benda di sekitar penderita bergerak atau berputar, yang biasanya disertai dengan mual dan kehilangan keseimbangan. Hal ini bisa berlangsung beberapa menit, sampai beberapa jam, bahkan hari. Penderita vertigo merasa lebih baik jika berbaring diam, namun demikian serangan vertigo bisa terus berlanjut meskipun penderita tidak bergerak sama sekali. Sebenarnya gejala vertigo itu apa saja? Gejala-gejala vertigo meliputi: 1. Pusing 2. Kepala terasa ringan 3. Rasa terapung, terayun 4. Mual 5. Keringat dingin 6. Pucat 7. Muntah 8. Sempoyongan waktu berdiri atau berjalan 9. Nistagmus Gejala-gejala di atas dapat diperhebat dengan berubahnya posisi kepala. Lalu, ada berapa macam vertigo itu? Secara garis besar, ada dua, yaitu vertigo perifer dan vertigo sentral. Pembagian ini dimaksudkan untuk memberikan penatalaksanaan atau terapi yang tepat. Vertigo Perifer Vertigo perifer (peripheral vertigo) disebabkan oleh disfungsi struktur perifer hingga ke batang otak (brain stem). Beberapa kondisi yang dapat menyebabkan vertigo perifer antara lain: 1. Benign paroxysmal positional vertigo 2. Drug-induced vertigo (vertigo yang disebabkan oleh obat) 3. Labyrinthitis 4. Ménière’s disease 5. Vestibular neuritis Penatalaksanaan Untuk vertigo perifer, dokter akan memberikan antihistamin, antikolinergik, antiemetik, dan benzodiazepines. Vertigo Sentral Vertigo sentral (central vertigo) melibatkan proses penyakit yang memengaruhi batang otak (brain stem) atau cerebellum. Beberapa penyakit yang dapat menyebabkan vertigo sentral antara lain: 1. Acoustic schwannomas atau meningiomas 2. Cerebellar pontine angle tumors 3. Cerebellar infarction 4. Cerebellar hemorrhage 5. Vertebrobasilar insufficiency Penatalaksanaan Untuk vertigo sentral, dokter akan menyarankan Anda segera menemui dokter spesialis saraf (neurologist) dan juga ke dokter ahli bedah saraf (neurosurgeon) jika diperlukan Lalu, apa sajakah perbedaan keduanya? Nah, inilah beberapa hal yang membedakan vertigo perifer dengan vertigo sentral: 1. Vertigo perifer beronset akut (waktunya singkat atau serangannya cepat terjadi), sedangkan vertigo sentral beronset kronis atau perlahan (gradual). Dengan kata lain, durasi gejala pada vertigo perifer terjadi dalam hitungan menit, harian, mingguan, namun berulang (recurrent). 2. Penyebab umum vertigo perifer adalah infeksi (labyrinthitis), Ménière’s, neuronitis, iskemia, trauma, toksin. Penyebab umum vertigo sentral adalah vaskuler, demyelinating, neoplasma. 3. Intensitas vertigo perifer sedang hingga berat, sedangkan vertigo sentral ringan hingga sedang. 4. Mual (nausea) dan muntah (vomiting) umumnya terjadi pada vertigo perifer dan jarang terjadi pada vertigo sentral. 5. Vertigo perifer umumnya berhubungan dengan posisi (positionally related), sedangkan vertigo sentral jarang berhubungan dengan posisi. 6. Kehilangan pendengaran (hearing loss) hingga ketulian (deafness) umumnya terjadi pada vertigo perifer dan jarang terjadi pada vertigo sentral. 7. Tinnitus (telinga berdenging) seringkali menyertai vertigo perifer. Pada vertigo sentral, biasanya tidak disertai tinnitus. 8. Pada vertigo perifer tidak ada defisit neurologis. Defisit neurologis (neurologic deficits) umumnya terjadi pada vertigo sentral. 9. Sifat nystagmus pada vertigo perifer adalah fatigable, berputar (rotary) atau horisontal, dan dihambat oleh fiksasi okuler, sedangkan sifat nystagmus pada vertigo sentral adalah nonfatigable, banyak arah (multidirectional), tidak dihambat oleh fiksasi okuler. Adakah obat yang dapat menyebabkan vertigo? Ada. Beberapa obat yang dapat menyebabkan vertigo antara lain: 1. Golongan aminoglycosides 2. Furosemide 3. Golongan NSAIDs (nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs), terutama indomethacin. 4. Agen sitotoksik, misalnya: cisplatin. 5. Antikejang (anticonvulsants), misalnya: phenytoin, carbamazepine, dan ethosuccinate. Dari pertanyaan Anda, kami temukan dua kalimat kunci “…merasakan bingung/mau jatuh setelah atau sedang mengendarai kendaraan bermotor” dan “rasanya sakit sekali”. Kemungkinan besar hal ini mengacu ke vertigo perifer. Namun sayang sekali Anda belum menyebutkan dengan lengkap: apakah juga disertai sensasi berputar, rasa seperti tuli atau kehilangan pendengaran, minimalnya pendengaran berkurang, rasa mual, mau muntah, sudah berapa lama/seberapa sering hal ini Anda alami (misalnya: sudah seminggu, sebulan, setahun), apakah Anda (rutin) mengonsumsi obat-obat tertentu sebelum mengendarai motor/mobil. Lalu, bagaimana solusinya? Saran kami, minum saja Antimo (nama obat, merk dagang) atau dimenhydrinate (nama obat, generik) dengan dosis 25 mg (1 tablet 50 mg), yaitu setengah tablet. Sebaiknya dikonsumsi setengah jam (30 menit) sebelum bepergian bila dipakai untuk mencegah vertigo. Perlu diperhatikan, bila mengendarai mobil, jangan sekali-kali menelan satu tablet utuh. Oh iya, untuk mendapatkan obat generik, sebaiknya berkonsultasi kepada dokter Anda terlebih dahulu. Ikhtiar lainnya, cobalah untuk selalu berdoa sebelum dan setelah mengendarai motor/mobil, tidak mengendarai motor/mobil dalam keadaan mengantuk, saat akan mengendarai motor/mobil, usahakan tenangkan pikiran, rileks-kan tubuh sekitar 5 menit, perbanyak mengonsumsi buah dan sayur, suplemen vitamin E, tidak terburu-buru (kemrungsung –Jawa), batasi makan coklat. Adakah terapi obat tradisonal (herbal) untuk vertigo? Ada, yaitu: kayu manis (Cinnamoman burmani). Kayu manis mengandung minyak atsiri, safrole, sinamadehide, eugenol, tanin, damar, kalsium oksanat, dan zat penyamak. Sifatnya adalah hangat, pedas, wangi, dan sedikit manis. Kayu manis Indonesia atau kayu manis China dapat dibeli di toko obat. Keduanya sama-sama berkhasiat. Untuk kayu manis China, dapat langsung diseduh dan diminum. Ramuan untuk penderita vertigo: 1 jari kayu manis, 10 gram asam trengguli, 60 gram rambut jagung, dan 30 gram daun seledri, direbus dengan 600 cc air hingga tersisa 200 cc. Airnya disaring dan dinimum selagi hangat. Ramuan lainnya: seibu jari kayu manis, 15 gram jahe merah, 5 gram biji pala, 5 butir kapulaga, 5 butir cengkih, dan 4 lembar daun sosor bebek. Rebuslah ramuan tersebut dengan 600 cc air hingga airnya tersisa 300 cc. Setelah itu, air rebusan disaring dan diminum. Menurut, Prof. Hembing Wijayakusuma, kayu manis berkhasiat untuk penyakit asam urat, tekanan darah tinggi, maag, tidak nafsu makan, sakit kepala (termasuk vertigo), masuk angin, diare, perut kembung, muntah-muntah, gernia, susah buang air besar, asma, sariawan, sakit kencing, dan lain-lain. Selain itu, kayu manis memang memiliki efek farmakologis yang dibutuhkan dalam obat-obatan. Kulit batang, daun, dan akarnya dapat dimanfaatkan sebagai obat antirematik, peluruh keringat (diaphoretik), peluruh kentut (carminative), meningkatkan nafsu makan, dan menghilangkan sakit. Bagaimana jika saran kami di atas belum berhasil? Segeralah hubungi dokter spesialis saraf terdekat di kota Anda. Demikian penjelasan dari kami, semoga bermanfaat. Hormat Kami, dr. Dito Anurogo Penemu Hematopsikiatri

Pergaulan Remaja

Banyak yang bilang bila pergaulan remaja saat ini sudah sangat jauh berubah dibanding pada masa-masa sepuluh tahun silam. Remaja sekarang lebih mampu berekspresi pada emosi dan mengungkapkan perasaan tanpa sembunyi-sembunyi dan malu seperti dulu.

Sudah lumrah saat ini kita melihat remaja mengungkapkan kemarahan, sedih dan kegembiraanya dengan kata-kata yang terucap secara langsung, tanpa basa-basi seperti halnya remaja pada zaman dahulu. Dengan santai mereka bisa mengungkapkan ketidak sukaanya pada ayah atau pun ibunya.

Merangkul dan mencium mesra ibu mereka tercinta. Perilaku ini pun diterapkan pada pergaulan mereka sehari-hari. Dengan biasa mereka mengexpresikan perasaan cinta dan sayang pada pacar mereka di tempat-tempat umum. Sudah umum dilihat saat ini bila di mall-mall para remaja biasa bergandengan tangan, berpelukan bahkan berciuman.

Buat para orang tua, perilaku seperti ini sangat mengejutkan dan membuat mereka merasa kuatir. Namun, seringkali para orang tua lupa, bahwa saat mereka remaja, perilaku mereka pun sering membuat kecut hati para orang tua mereka sendiri!

Namun, apabila orang tua terlalu keras akibat perasaan kuatir yang mereka miliki, maka remaja akan cenderung memberontak dan bersikap jauh lebih keras dan pertikaian antara orang tua dan anak pun tidak dapat lagi dihindari.

Remaja bergaul memang adalah sebuah kebutuhan.Sama halnya dengan dahaga yang ingin terpuaskan. Mereka ingin mengenal banyak orang dari berbagai lingkungan. Ini sebetulnya tidak terlepas dari proses pencarian jati diri semata. Dengan membebaskan perasaan dan isi hati, mereka juga mengharapkan kebebasan dan ketenangan jiwa. Bila dikekang, mereka nampak begitu sedih dan terkekang.

Tapi bila pergaulan terlalu dibebaskan, juga sangat mengkuatirkan. Yang penting berkomunikasi dan terarah. Bilamana sang remaja masih mampu berkomunikasi dengan keluarga dan orang tua, maka bimbingan untuk pergaulan pun dapat tersampaikan. Informasi tentang apa yang sebaiknya mereka lakukan dengan teman-teman dan apa efek dari apa yang mere lalukan dan perbuat juga perlu dikomunikasikan.

Dengan demikian, besar harapan kita agar remaja mampu memilih apa yang baik dan tidak untuk dilakukan. Tidak ada kata benar atau salah, tapi lebih tepat kepada yang baik atau bermanfaat dan yang merugikan.

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Early kingdoms

1600-year-old stone inscription from the era of Purnawarman, king of Tarumanagara, founded in Tugu sub-district of Jakarta.

References to the Dvipantara or Jawa Dwipa Hindu kingdom in Java and Sumatra appear in Sanskrit writings from 200 BCE.^{[citation needed]} The earliest archeological relic discovered in Indonesia is from the Ujung Kulon National Park, West Java, where an early Hindu statue of Ganesha from the 1st century CE was found on the summit of Mount Raksa in Panaitan Island. There is also archeological evidence of a kingdom in Sunda territory in West Java dating from the 2nd century, and according to Dr Tony Djubiantono, the head of Bandung Archeology Agency, Jiwa Temple in Batujaya, Karawang, West Javawas also built around this time.

8th century Borobudur buddhist monument, Sailendra dynasty

A number of Hindu and Buddhist states flourished and then declined across Indonesia. By the time of the EuropeanRenaissance, Java and Sumatra had already seen over a millennium of civilization and two major empires. One such early kingdom was Tarumanagara, which flourished between 358 and 669 CE. Located in West Java close to modern-day Jakarta, its fifth-century king, Purnawarman, established the earliest known inscriptions in Java, the Ciaruteun inscription located nearBogor. On this monument, King Purnavarman inscribed his name and made an imprint of his footprints, as well as his elephant's footprints. The accompanying inscription reads, "Here are the footprints of King Purnavarman, the heroic conqueror of the world". This inscription is in Sanskrit and is still clear after 1500 years. Purnawarman apparently built a canal that changed the course of the Cakung River, and drained a coastal area for agriculture and settlement. In his stone inscriptions, Purnawarman associated himself with Vishnu, and Brahmins ritually secured the hydraulic project.^[8]

Three rough plinths dating from the beginning of the 4th century are found in Kutai, East Kalimantan, near Mahakam River. The plinths bear an inscription in the Pallava script of India reading "A gift to the Brahmin priests".

The political history of Indonesian archipelago during the seventh to 11th century was dominated by Srivijaya based in Sumatra, alsoSailendra that dominated central Java and constructed Borobudur, the largest Buddhist monument in the world. In fourteenth and fifteen centuries the history is not well known due to scarcity of evidence. Two major states dominated this period; Majapahit in East Java, the greatest of the pre-Islamic Indonesian states, and Malacca on the west coast of the Malay Peninsula, arguably the greatest of the Muslim trading empires.^[9]

[edit]Medang

Prambanan in Java; built during the Sanjaya dynasty of Mataram, it is one of the largest Hindu temple complexes in south-east Asia.

Main article: Medang Kingdom

Medang or previously known as Mataram was an Indianized kingdom based in Central Java around modern-day Yogyakarta between the 8th and 10th centuries. The center of the kingdom was moved from central Java to east Java by Mpu Sindok. An eruption of Mount Merapi volcano or a power struggle may have caused the move.

The first king of Mataram was Sri Sanjaya and left inscriptions in stone.^[10] The monumental Hindu temple of Prambanan in the vicinity of Yogyakarta was built by Daksa. Dharmawangsa ordered the translation of the Mahabharata into Old Javanese in 996.

The kingdom collapsed into chaos at the end of Dharmawangsa's reign under military pressure fromSrivijaya. One of the last major kings of Mataram was Airlangga who reigned from 1016 until 1049.^[11]Airlangga was a son of Udayana of Bali and a relative of Dharmawangsa re-established the kingdom including Bali under the name of Kahuripan.

[edit]Srivijaya

Main article: Srivijaya

The empire of Srivijaya in Southeast Asia

Srivijaya was an ethnic Malay kingdom on Sumatra which influenced much of the Maritime Southeast Asia. From the 7th century CE, the powerful Srivijaya naval kingdom flourished as a result of trade and the influences of Hinduism and Buddhism that were imported with it.^[12]

As early as the first century CE Indonesian vessels made trade voyages as far as Africa. Picture: a ship carved onBorobudur, circa 800 CE.

Srivijaya was centred in the coastal trading centre of present day Palembang. Srivijaya was not a "state" in the modern sense with defined boundaries and a centralized government to which the citizens own allegiance.^[13] Rather Srivijaya was a confederacy form of society centered on a royal heartland.^[14] It was athalassocracy and did not extend its influence far beyond the coastal areas of the islands of Southeast Asia. Trade was the driving force of Srivijaya just as it is for most societies throughout history.^[15] The Srivijayan navy controlled the trade that made its way through theStrait of Malacca.^[13]

By the 7th century, the harbors of various vassal states of Srivijaya lined both coasts of the Straits of Melaka.^[14] Around this time, Srivijaya had established suzerainty over large areas of Sumatra, western Java, and much of the Malay Peninsula. Dominating the Malacca and Sunda straits, the empire controlled both the Spice Route traffic and local trade. It remained a formidable sea power until the 13th century. This spread the ethnic Malay culture throughout Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula, and westernBorneo. A stronghold of Vajrayana Buddhism, Srivijaya attracted pilgrims and scholars from other parts of Asia.

A series of Chola raids in the 11th century weakened the Srivijayan hegemony and enabled the formation of regional kingdoms based, like Kediri, on intensive agriculture rather than coastal and long distance trade. Srivijayan influence waned by the 11th century. The island was in frequent conflict with the Javanese kingdoms, first Singhasari and then Majapahit. Islam eventually made its way to the Aceh region of Sumatra, spreading its influence through contacts with Arabs and Indian traders. By the late 13th century, the kingdom of Pasai in northern Sumatra converted to Islam. At that time Srivijaya was briefly a tributary of the Khmer empire and later the Sukhothai kingdom^{[citation needed]}. The last inscription dates to 1374, where a crown prince, Ananggavarman, is mentioned. Srivijaya ceased to exist by 1414, whenParameswara, the kingdom's last prince, converted to Islam and founded the Sultanate of Malacca on the Malay peninsula.

[edit]Singhasari and Majapahit

Wringin Lawang, the split gate shows the red brick construction, and strong geometric lines of Majapahit architecture. Located at Jatipasar, Trowulan, East Java.

Main articles: Singhasari and Majapahit

Despite a lack of historical evidence, it is known that Majapahit was the most dominant of Indonesia's pre-Islamic states.^[16] The Hindu Majapahit kingdom was founded in eastern Java in the late 13th century, and under Gajah Mada it experienced what is often referred to as a "Golden Age" in Indonesian history,^[17]when its influence extended to much of southern Malay Peninsula, Borneo, Sumatra, and Bali^{[citation needed]} from about 1293 to around 1500.

The founder of the Majapahit Empire, Kertarajasa, was the son-in-law of the ruler of the Singhasarikingdom, also based in Java. After Singhasari drove Srivijaya out of Java in 1290, the rising power of Singhasari came to the attention of Kublai Khan in China and he sent emissaries demanding tribute.Kertanagara, ruler of the Singhasari kingdom, refused to pay tribute and the Khan sent a punitive expeditionwhich arrived off the coast of Java in 1293. By that time, a rebel from Kediri, Jayakatwang, had killed Kertanagara. The Majapahit founder allied himself with the Mongols against Jayakatwang and, once the Singhasari kingdom was destroyed, turned and forced his Mongol allies to withdraw in confusion.

Gajah Mada, an ambitious Majapahit prime minister and regent from 1331 to 1364, extended the empire's rule to the surrounding islands. A few years after Gajah Madah's death, the Majapahit navy captured Palembang, putting an end to the Srivijayan kingdom. Although the Majapahit rulers extended their power over other islands and destroyed neighbouring kingdoms, their focus seems to have been on controlling and gaining a larger share of the commercial trade that passed through the archipelago. About the time Majapahit was founded, Muslim traders and proselytisers began entering the area. After its peak in the 14th century, Majapahit power began to decline and was unable to control the rising power of the Sultanate of Malacca. Dates for the end of the Majapahit Empire range from 1478 to 1520. A large number of courtiers, artisans, priests, and members of the royal family moved east to the island of Bali at the end of Majapahit power.

[edit]The age of Islamic states

[edit]The spread of Islam

Main article: The spread of Islam in Indonesia

The earliest accounts of the Indonesian archipelago date from the Abbasid Caliphate, according to those early accounts the Indonesian archipelago were famous among early Muslim Sailors mainly due to its abundance of precious spice trade commodities such as Nutmeg,Cloves, Galangal and many other spices.^[18][19]

Although Muslim traders first traveled through South East Asia early in the Islamic era, the The spread of Islam among the inhabitants of the Indonesian archipelago dates to the 13th century in northern Sumatra.^[20] Although it is known that the spread of Islam began in the west of the archipelago, the fragmentary evidence does not suggest a rolling wave of conversion through adjacent areas; rather, it suggests the process was complicated and slow.^[20] The spread of Islam was driven by increasing trade links outside of the archipelago; in general, traders and the royalty of major kingdoms were the first to adopt the new religion.^[21]

Other Indonesian areas gradually adopted Islam, making it the dominant religion in Java and Sumatra by the end of the 16th century. For the most part, Islam overlaid and mixed with existing cultural and religious influences, which shaped the predominant form of Islam in Indonesia, particularly in Java.^[21] Only Bali retained a Hindu majority. In the eastern archipelago, both Christian and Islamic missionaries were active in the 16th and 17th centuries, and, currently, there are large communities of both religions on these islands.^[21]

[edit]Sultanate of Mataram

Main article: Sultanate of Mataram

The cemetery compound of MataramSultans in Kota Gede, Yogyakarta.

The Sultanate of Mataram was the third Sultanate in Java, after the Sultanate of Demak Bintoroand the Sultanate of Pajang.

According to Javanese records, Kyai Gedhe Pamanahan became the ruler of the Mataram area in the 1570s with the support of the kingdom of Pajang to the east, near the current site of Surakarta(Solo). Pamanahan was often referred to as Kyai Gedhe Mataram after his ascension.

Pamanahan's son, Panembahan Senapati Ingalaga, replaced his father on the throne around 1584. Under Senapati the kingdom grew substantially through regular military campaigns against Mataram's neighbors. Shortly after his accession, for example, he conquered his father's patrons in Pajang.

The reign of Panembahan Seda ing Krapyak (c. 1601–1613), the son of Senapati, was dominated by further warfare, especially against powerful Surabaya, already a major center in East Java. The first contact between Mataram and the Dutch East India Company (VOC) occurred under Krapyak. Dutch activities at the time were limited to trading from limited coastal settlements, so their interactions with the inland Mataram kingdom were limited, although they did form an alliance against Surabaya in 1613. Krapyak died that year.

Krapyak was succeeded by his son, who is known simply as Sultan Agung ("Great Sultan") in Javanese records. Agung was responsible for the great expansion and lasting historical legacy of Mataram due to the extensive military conquests of his long reign from 1613 to 1646.

After years of war Agung finally conquered Surabaya. The city surrounded by land and sea and starved it into submission. With Surabaya brought into the empire, the Mataram kingdom encompassed all of central and eastern Java, and Madura; only in the west did Banten and the Dutch settlement in Batavia remain outside Agung's control. He tried repeatedly in the 1620s and 1630s to drive the Dutch from Batavia, but his armies had met their match, and he was forced to share control over Java.

In 1645 he began building Imogiri, his burial place, about fifteen kilometers south of Yogyakarta. Imogiri remains the resting place of most of the royalty of Yogyakarta and Surakarta to this day. Agung died in the spring of 1646, with his image of royal invincibility shattered by his losses to the Dutch, but he did leave behind an empire that covered most of Java and its neighboring islands.

Upon taking the throne, Agung's son Susuhunan Amangkurat I tried to bring long-term stability to Mataram's realm, murdering local leaders that were insufficiently deferential to him, and closing ports so he alone had control over trade with the Dutch.

By the mid-1670s dissatisfaction with the king fanned into open revolt. Raden Trunajaya, a prince from Madura, lead a revolt fortified by itinerant mercenaries from Makassar that captured the king's court at Mataram in mid-1677. The king escaped to the north coast with his eldest son, the future king Amangkurat II, leaving his younger son Pangeran Puger in Mataram. Apparently more interested in profit and revenge than in running a struggling empire, the rebel Trunajaya looted the court and withdrew to his stronghold in East Java leaving Puger in control of a weak court.

Amangkurat I died just after his expulsion, making Amangkurat II king in 1677. He too was nearly helpless, though, having fled without an army or treasury to build one. In an attempt to regain his kingdom, he made substantial concessions to the Dutch, who then went to war to reinstate him. For the Dutch, a stable Mataram empire that was deeply indebted to them would help ensure continued trade on favorable terms. They were willing to lend their military might to keep the kingdom together. Dutch forces first captured Trunajaya, then forced Puger to recognize the sovereignty of his elder brother Amangkurat II. The kingdom collapsed after a two-year war, in which power plays crippled the Sunan.

[edit]The Sultanate of Banten

Main article: The Sultanate of Banten

In 1524–25, Sunan Gunung Jati from Cirebon, together with the armies of Demak Sultanate, seized the port of Banten from the Sunda kingdom, and established The Sultanate of Banten. This was accompanied by Muslim preachers and the adoption of Islam amongst the local population. At its peak in the first half of the 17th century, the Sultanate lasted from 1526 to 1813 AD. The Sultanate left many archaeological remains and historical records.^[22]

[edit]Colonial era

Beginning in the 16th century, successive waves of Europeans—the Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch and British—sought to dominate the spice trade at its sources in India and the 'Spice Islands' (Maluku) of Indonesia. This meant finding a way to Asia to cut out Muslim merchants who, with their Venetian outlet in the Mediterranean, monopolised spice imports to Europe. Astronomically priced at the time, spices were highly coveted not only to preserve and make poorly preserved meat palatable, but also as medicines and magic potions.

The arrival of Europeans in South East Asia is often regarded as the watershed moment in its history. Other scholars consider this view untenable,^[23] arguing that European influence during the times of the early arrivals of the sixteenth and 17th centuries was limited in both area and depth. This is in part due to Europe not being the most advanced or dynamic area of the world in the early 15th century. Rather, the major expansionist force of this time was Islam; in 1453, for example, the Ottoman Turks conquered Constantinople, while Islam continued to spread through Indonesia and the Philippines. European influence, particularly that of the Dutch, would not have its greatest impact on Indonesia until the 18th and 19th centuries.

[edit]The Portuguese

Main article: The Portuguese in Indonesia

The nutmeg plant is native to Indonesia's Banda Islands. Once one of the world's most valuable commodities, it drew the first European colonial powers to Indonesia.

New found Portuguese expertise in navigation, ship building and weaponry allowed them to make daring expeditions of exploration and expansion. Starting with the first exploratory expeditions sent from newly conquered Malacca in 1512, the Portuguese were the first Europeans to arrive in Indonesia, and sought to dominate the sources of valuable spices^[24] and to extend the Roman Catholic church's missionary efforts. The Portuguese turned east to Maluku and through both military conquest and alliance with local rulers, they established trading posts, forts, and missions on the islands of Ternate, Ambon, and Solor among others. The height of Portuguese missionary activities, however, came at the latter half of the 16th century. Ultimately, the Portuguese presence in Indonesia was reduced to Solor, Flores and Timor in modern day Nusa Tenggara, following defeat at the hands of indigenous Ternateans and the Dutch in Maluku, and a general failure to maintain control of trade in the region.^[25] In comparison with the original Portuguese ambition to dominate Asian trade, their influence on Indonesian culture was small: the romantic keroncongguitar ballads; a number of Indonesian words which reflect Portuguese’s role as the lingua franca of the archipelago alongside Malay; and many family names in eastern Indonesia such as da Costa, Dias, de Fretes, Gonsalves, etc. The most significant impacts of the Portuguese arrival were the disruption and disorganisation of the trade network mostly as a result of their conquest of Malacca, and the first significant plantings of Christianity in Indonesia. There have continued to be Christian communities in eastern Indonesia through to the present, which has contributed to a sense of shared interest with Europeans, particularly among the Ambonese.^[26]

[edit]Dutch East-India Company

The logo of the Amsterdam Chamber of the Dutch East-India Company (VOC).

Main article: Dutch East India Company in Indonesia

An early 18th century Dutch map from a time when only the north coastal ports of Java were well known to the Dutch

In 1602, the Dutch parliament awarded the VOC a monopoly on trade and colonial activities in the region at a time before the company controlled any territory in Java. In 1619, the VOC conquered the West Javan city of Jayakarta, where they founded the city of Batavia (present-day Jakarta). The VOC became deeply involved in the internal politics of Java in this period, and fought in a number of wars involving the leaders ofMataram and Banten.

The Dutch followed the Portuguese aspirations, courage, brutality and strategies but brought better organisation, weapons, ships, and superior financial backing. Although they failed to gain complete control of the Indonesian spice trade, they had much more success than the previous Portuguese efforts. They exploited the factionalisation of the small kingdoms in Java that had replaced Majapahit, establishing a permanent foothold in Java, from which grew a land-based colonial empire which became one of the world's richest colonial possessions.^[26]

[edit]Dutch state rule

See also: Dutch East Indies

Batavian (Jakarta) tea factory in the 1860s

After the VOC was dissolved in 1800 following bankruptcy,^[24] and after a short British rule underThomas Stamford Raffles, the Dutch state took over the VOC possessions in 1816. A Javanese uprising was crushed in the Java War of 1825–1830. After 1830 a system of forced cultivations and indentured labour was introduced on Java, the Cultivation System (in Dutch: cultuurstelsel). This system brought the Dutch and their Indonesian collaborators enormous wealth. The cultivation system tied peasants to their land, forcing them to work in government-owned plantations for 60 days of the year. The system was abolished in a more liberal period after 1870. In 1901 the Dutch adopted what they called the Ethical Policy, which included somewhat increased investment in indigenous education, and modest political reforms.

For most of the colonial period, Dutch control over its territories in the Indonesian archipelago was tenuous. In some cases, Dutch police and military actions in parts of Indonesia were quite cruel. Recent discussions, for example, of Dutch cruelty in Aceh have encouraged renewed research on these aspects of Dutch rule.^[27] It was only in the early 20th century, three centuries after the first Dutch trading post, that the full extent of the colonial territory was established and direct colonial rule exerted across what would become the boundaries of the modern Indonesian state.^[28] Portuguese Timor, now East Timor, remained under Portuguese rule until 1975 when it was invaded by Indonesia. The Indonesian government declared the territory an Indonesian province but relinquished it in 1999.

[edit]The emergence of Indonesia

[edit]Indonesian National Awakening

Main article: Indonesian National Awakening

Sukarno, Indonesian Nationalist leader, and later, first president of Indonesia

In October 1908, the first nationalist movement was formed, Budi Utomo.^[29] On September 10, 1912, the first nationalist mass movement was formed--Sarekat Islam.^[30] By December 1912, Sarakat Islam had 93,000 members.^[14] The Dutch responded after the First World War with repressive measures. The nationalist leaders came from a small group of young professionals and students, some of whom had been educated in the Netherlands. In the post–World War I era, the Indonesian communists who were associated with the Third International started to usurp the nationalist movement.^[31] The repression of the nationalist movement led to many arrests, including Indonesia's first president, Sukarno (1901–70), who was imprisoned for political activities on December 29, 1929.^[32] Also arrested was Mohammad Hatta, first Vice-President of Indonesia.^[33] Additionally, Sutan Sjahrir, who later became the first Prime Minister of Indonesia, was arrested on this date.^[34]

In 1914 exiled Dutch socialist Henk Sneevliet founded the Indies Social Democratic Association. Initially a small forum of Dutch socialists, it would later evolve into the Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI) in 1924.^[35] In the post–World War I era, the Dutch strongly repressed all attempts at change. This repression led to a growth of the PKI. By December 1924, the PKI had a membership of 1,140.^[14] One year later in 1925, the PKI had grown to 3,000 members.^[14] In 1926 thru 1927, there was a PKI-led revolt against the Dutch colonialism and the harsh repression based on strikes of urban workers.^[36] However, the strikes and the revolt was put down by the Dutch with some 13,000 nationalists and communists leaders arrested.^[14]Some 4,500 were given prison sentences.^[37]

Sukarno was released from prison in December 1931.^[38] However, Sukarno was re-arrested again on August 1, 1933.^[39]

[edit]Japanese occupation

Main article: Japanese occupation of Indonesia

The Japanese invasion and subsequent occupation during World War II ended Dutch rule,^[40] and encouraged the previously suppressed Indonesian independence movement. In May 1940, early in World War II, the Netherlands was occupied by Nazi Germany. The Dutch East Indies declared a state of siege and in July redirected exports for Japan to the US and Britain. Negotiations with the Japanese aimed at securing supplies of aviation fuel collapsed in June 1941, and the Japanese started their conquest of Southeast Asia in December of that year.^[41] That same month, factions from Sumatra sought Japanese assistance for a revolt against the Dutch wartime government. The last Dutch forces were defeated by Japan in March 1942.

In July 1942, Sukarno accepted Japan's offer to rally the public in support of the Japanese war effort. Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta were decorated by the Emperor of Japan in 1943. However, experience of the Japanese occupation of Indonesia varied considerably, depending upon where one lived and one's social position. Many who lived in areas considered important to the war effort experienced torture, sex slavery, arbitrary arrest and execution, and other war crimes. Thousands taken away from Indonesia as war labourers (romusha) suffered or died as a result of ill-treatment and starvation. People of Dutch and mixed Dutch-Indonesian descent were particular targets of the Japanese occupation.

In March 1945 Japan organized an Indonesian committee (BPUPKI) on independence. At its first meeting in May, Soepomo spoke of national integration and against personal individualism; while Muhammad Yamin suggested that the new nation should claim Sarawak, Sabah,Malaya, Portuguese Timor, and all the pre-war territories of the Dutch East Indies. The committee drafted the 1945 Constitution, which remains in force, though now much amended. On 9 August 1945 Sukarno, Hatta, and Radjiman Wediodiningrat were flown to meet MarshalHisaichi Terauchi in Vietnam. They were told that Japan intended to announce Indonesian independence on 24 August. After the Japanese surrender however, Sukarno unilaterally proclaimed Indonesian independence on 17 August.

[edit]Indonesian National Revolution

Main article: Indonesian National Revolution

Indonesian flag raising shortly after the declaration of independence.

Under pressure from radical and politicised pemuda ('youth') groups, Sukarno and Hatta proclaimed Indonesian independence, on 17 August 1945, two days after the Japanese Emperor’ssurrender in the Pacific. The following day, the Central Indonesian National Committee (KNIP) declared Sukarno President, and Hatta Vice President.^[42] Word of the proclamation spread by shortwave and fliers while the Indonesian war-time military (PETA), youths, and others rallied in support of the new republic, often moving to take over government offices from the Japanese.

The Netherlands, initially backed by the British, tried to re-establish their rule,^[43] and a bitter armed and diplomatic struggle ended in December 1949, when in the face of international pressure, the Dutch formally recognised Indonesian independence.^[44] Dutch efforts to re-establish complete control met resistance. At the end of World War II, a power vacuum arose, and the nationalists often succeeded in seizing the arms of the demoralised Japanese. A period of unrest with city guerrilla warfare called the Bersiap period ensued. Groups of Indonesian nationalists armed with improvised weapons (like bamboo spears) and firearms attacked returning Allied troops. 3,500 Europeans were killed and 20,000 were missing, meaning there were more European deaths in Indonesia after the war than during the war. After returning to Java, Dutch forces quickly re-occupied the colonial capital of Batavia (now Jakarta), so the city of Yogyakarta in central Java became the capital of the nationalist forces. Negotiations with the nationalists led to two major truce agreements, but disputes about their implementation, and much mutual provocation, led each time to renewed conflict. Within four years the Dutch had recaptured almost the whole of Indonesia, but guerrilla resistance, led on Java by commander Nasution persisted. On 27 December 1949, after four years of sporadic warfare and fierce criticism of the Dutch by the UN, the Netherlands officially recognised Indonesian sovereignty under the federal structure of the United States of Indonesia (RUSI). On 17 August 1950, exactly five years after the proclamation of independence, the last of the federal states were dissolved and Sukarno proclaimed a single unitary Republic of Indonesia.^[45]

[edit]Sukarno's presidency

[edit]Democratic experiment

Main article: Liberal democracy period in Indonesia

Campaign posters for the 1955 Indonesian election.

With the unifying struggle to secure Indonesia's independence over, divisions in Indonesian society began to appear. These included regional differences in customs, religion, the impact of Christianity and Marxism, and fears of Javanese political domination. Following colonial rule, Japanese occupation, and war against the Dutch, the new country suffered from severe poverty, a ruinous economy, low educational and skills levels, and authoritarian traditions.^[46] Challenges to the authority of the Republic included the militant Darul Islam who waged a guerrilla struggle against the Republic from 1948 to 1962; the declaration of an independent Republic of South Maluku by Ambonese formerly of the Royal Dutch Indies Army; and rebellions in Sumatra and Sulawesi between 1955 and 1961.

In contrast to the 1945 Constitution, the 1950 constitution mandated a parliamentary system of government, an executive responsible to the parliament, and stipulated at length constitutional guarantees for human rights, drawing heavily on the 1948 United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights.^[47] A proliferation of political parties dealing for shares of cabinet seats resulted in a rapid turnover of coalition governments including 17 cabinets between 1945 and 1958. The long-postponed parliamentary elections were held in 1955; the Indonesian National Party (PNI)—considered Sukarno's party—topped the poll, and the Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI) received strong support, but no party garnered more than a quarter of the votes, which resulted in short-lived coalitions.^[48]

[edit]Guided Democracy

Main article: Guided Democracy in Indonesia

Coat of Arms of the Republic of Indonesia, adopted 1950

By 1956, Sukarno was openly criticising parliamentary democracy, stating that it was "based upon inherent conflict" which ran counter to Indonesian notions of harmony as being the natural state human relationships. Instead, he sought a system based on the traditional village system of discussion and consensus, under the guidance of village elders. He proposed a threefold blend of nasionalisme('nationalism'), agama ('religion'), and komunisme ('communism') into a co-operative 'Nas-A-Kom' government. This was intended to appease the three main factions in Indonesian politics — the army, Islamic groups, and the communists. With the support of the military, he proclaimed in February 1957, 'Guided Democracy', and proposed a cabinet of representing all the political parties of importance (including the PKI).^[48] The US tried and failed to secretly overthrow the President, while Secretary of State Dulles declared before Congress that "we are not interested in the internal affairs of this country." ^[49]

Sukarno abrogated the 1950 Constitution on 9 July 1959 by a decree dissolving the Constitutional Assembly and restoring the 1945 Constitution.^[48] The elected parliament was replaced by one appointed by, and subject to the will of, the President. Another non-elected body, the Supreme Advisory Council, was the main policy development body, while the National Front was set up in September 1960 and presided over by the president to "mobilise the revolutionary forces of the people".^[48] Western-style parliamentary democracy was thus finished in Indonesia until the 1999 elections of the Reformasi era.^[48]

[edit]Sukarno's revolution and nationalism

Charismatic Sukarno spoke as a romantic revolutionary, and under his increasingly authoritarian rule, Indonesia moved on a course of stormy nationalism. Sukarno was popularly referred to as bung ("older brother"), and he painted himself as a man of the people carrying the aspirations of Indonesia and one who dared take on the West.^[50] He instigated a number of large, ideologically driven infrastructure projects and monuments celebrating Indonesia's identity, which were criticised as substitutes for real development in a deteriorating economy.^[50]

Western New Guinea had been part of the Dutch East Indies, and Indonesian nationalists had thus claimed it on this basis. Indonesia was able to instigate a diplomatic and military confrontation with the Dutch over the territory following an Indonesian-Soviet arms agreement in 1960. It was, however, United States pressure on the Netherlands that led to an Indonesian takeover in 1963.^[51] Also in 1963, Indonesia commenced Konfrontasi with the new state of Malaysia. The northern states of Borneo, formerly British Sarawak and Sabah, had wavered in joining Malaysia, whilst Indonesia saw itself as the rightful rulers of the Malay race and supported an unsuccessful revolution attempt inBrunei.^[51] Reviving the glories of the Indonesian National Revolution, Sukarno rallied against notions of British imperialism mounting military offensives along the Indonesia-Malaysia border in Borneo. As the PKI rallied in Jakarta streets in support, the West became increasingly alarmed at Indonesian foreign policy and the United States withdrew its aid to Indonesia.^[51]

Indonesia's economic position continued to deteriorate; by the mid-1960s, the cash-strapped government had to scrap critical public sector subsidies, inflation was at 1,000%, export revenues were shrinking, infrastructure crumbling, and factories were operating at minimal capacity with negligible investment. Severe poverty and hunger were widespread.^[51][52]

[edit]The New Order

[edit]Transition to the New Order

Main article: Transition to the New Order

See also: 30 September Movement and Indonesian killings of 1965–1966

Described as the great dalang ("puppet master"), Sukarno's position depended on balancing the opposing and increasingly hostile forces of the army and PKI. Sukarno's anti-imperial ideology saw Indonesia increasingly dependent on Soviet and then communist China. By 1965, the PKI was the largest communist party in the world outside the Soviet Union or China. Penetrating all levels of government, the party increasingly gained influence at the expense of the army.

On September 30, 1965, six of the most senior generals within the military and other officers were executed in an attempted coup. The insurgents, known later as the 30 September Movement, backed a rival faction of the army and took up positions in the capital, later seizing control of the national radio station. They claimed they were acting against a plot organised by the generals to overthrow Sukarno. Within a few hours, Major General Suharto, commander of the Army Strategic Reserve (Kostrad), mobilised counteraction, and by the evening of 1 October, it was clear the coup, which had little coordination and was largely limited to Jakarta, had failed. Complicated and partisan theoriescontinue to this day over the identity of the attempted coup's organisers and their aims. According to the Indonesian army, the PKI were behind the coup and used disgruntled army officers to carry it out, and this became the official account of Suharto's subsequent New Orderadministration. Most historians agree that the coup and the surrounding events were not led by a single mastermind controlling all events, and that the full truth will never likely be known.

While the PKI's role in the events of the night of 30 September-1 October remains debated, the effects on it were devastating. The PKI was blamed for the coup, and anti-communists, initially following the army's lead, and encouraged by Western embassies,^[53] went on a violentanti-communist purge across much of the country. The PKI was effectively destroyed,^[54] and the most widely accepted estimates are that between 500,000 and one million people were killed.^[55] The violence was especially brutal in Java and Bali. The PKI was outlawed and possibly more than 1 million of its leaders and affiliates were imprisoned.^[56]

Throughout the 1965–66 period, President Sukarno attempted to restore his political position and shift the country back to its pre-October 1965 position but his Guided Democracy balancing act was destroyed with the PKI’s destruction. Although he remained president, the weakened Sukarno was forced to transfer key political and military powers to General Suharto, who by that time had become head of the armed forces. In March 1967, the Provisional People's Consultative Assembly (MPRS) named General Suharto acting president. Suharto was formally appointed president in March 1968. Sukarno lived under virtual house arrest until his death in 1970.

[edit]Entrenchment of the New Order

Main article: New Order (Indonesia)

Suharto was the military president of Indonesia from 1967 to 1998

In the aftermath of Suharto's rise, hundreds of thousands of people were killed or imprisoned by the military and religious groups in a backlash against alleged communist supporters.^[57] Suharto's administration is commonly called the New Order era.^[58] Suharto invited major foreign investment, which produced substantial, if uneven, economic growth. However, Suharto enriched himself and his family through business dealings and widespread corruption.^[59]

[edit]Annexation of West Irian

See also: Western New Guinea

At the time of independence, the Dutch retained control over the western half of New Guinea, and permitted steps toward self-government and a declaration of independence on December 1, 1961. After negotiations with the Dutch on the incorporation of the territory into Indonesia failed, an Indonesian paratroop invasion December 18 preceded armed clashes between Indonesian and Dutch troops in 1961 and 1962. In 1962 the United States pressured the Netherlands into secret talks with Indonesia which in August 1962 produced the New York Agreement, and Indonesia assumed administrative responsibility for West Irian on May 1, 1963.

Rejecting UN supervision, the Indonesian government under Suharto decided to settle the question of West Irian, the former Dutch New Guinea, in their favor. Rather than a referendum of all residents of West Irian as had been agreed under Sukarno, an "Act of Free Choice" was conducted 1969 in which 1,025 Papuan representatives of local councils were selected by the Indonesians. After training in Indonesian language they were warned to vote in favor of Indonesian integration with the group unanimously voting for integration with Indonesia.^{[citation needed]} A subsequent UN General Assembly resolution confirmed the transfer of sovereignty to Indonesia.

West Irian was renamed Irian Jaya ('glorious Irian') in 1973. Opposition to Indonesian administration of Irian Jaya (later known as Papua) gave rise to small-scale guerrilla activity in the years following Jakarta's assumption of control.

[edit]Annexation of East Timor

See also: History of East Timor

In 1975, the Carnation Revolution in Portugal caused authorities there to announce plans for decolonisation of Portuguese Timor, the eastern half of the island of Timor whose western half was a part of the Indonesian province of East Nusa Tenggara. In the elections held in 1975,Fretilin, a left-leaning party and UDT, aligned with the local elite, emerged as the largest parties, having previously formed an alliance to campaign for independence from Portugal. Apodeti, a party advocating integration with Indonesia, enjoyed little popular support.

Indonesia alleged that Fretilin was communist, and feared that an independent East Timor would influence separatism in the archipelago. Indonesian military intelligence influenced the break-up of the alliance between Fretilin and UDT, which led to a coup by the UDT on August 11, 1975, and a month-long civil war. During this time, the Portuguese government effectively abandoned the territory, and did not resume the decolonisation process. On November 28, Fretilin unilaterally declared independence, and proclaimed the 'Democratic Republic of East Timor'. Nine days later, on December 7, Indonesia invaded East Timor, eventually annexing the tiny country of (then) 680,000 people. Indonesia was supported materially and diplomatically by the United States, Australia and the United Kingdom who regarded Indonesia as an anti-communist ally.

Following the 1998 resignation of Suharto, on August 30, 1999, the people of East Timor voted overwhelmingly for independence in a UN-sponsored referendum. About 99% of the eligible population participated; more than three quarters chose independence despite months of attacks by the Indonesian military and its militia. After the result was announced, elements of the Indonesian military and its militia retaliated by killing approximately 2,000 East Timorese, displacing two-thirds of the population, raping hundreds of women and girls, and destroying much of the country's infrastructure. In October 1999, the Indonesian parliament (MPR) revoked the decree that annexed East Timor, and theUnited Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor (UNTAET) assumed responsibility for governing East Timor until it officially became an independent state in May 2002.

[edit]Transmigration

Main article: Transmigration program

The Transmigration program (Transmigrasi) was a National Government initiative to move landless people from densely populated areas ofIndonesia (such as Java and Bali) to less populous areas of the country including Papua, Kalimantan, Sumatra, and Sulawesi. The stated purpose of this program was to reduce the considerable poverty and overpopulation on Java, to provide opportunities for hard-working poor people, and to provide a workforce to better utilise the resources of the outer islands. The program, however, has been controversial with critics accusing the Indonesian Government of trying to use these migrants to reduce the proportion of native populations in receiving areas, in order to weaken separatist movements. The program has often been cited as a major and ongoing factor in controversies and even conflict and violence between settlers and indigenous populations.

[edit]Reformation Era

See also: Indonesian Revolution of 1998

[edit]Pro-democracy movement

University students and police forces clash in May 1998.

In 1996 Suharto undertook efforts to pre-empt a challenge to the New Order government. TheIndonesian Democratic Party (PDI), a legal party that had traditionally propped up the regime had changed direction, and began to assert its independence. Suharto fostered a split over the leadership of PDI, backing a co-opted faction loyal to deputy speaker of the People's Representative Council Suryadi against a faction loyal to Megawati Sukarnoputri, the daughter ofSukarno and the PDI's chairperson.

After the Suryadi faction announced a party congress to sack Megawati would be held in Medanon June 20–22, Megawati proclaimed that her supporters would hold demonstrations in protest. The Suryadi faction went through with its sacking of Megawati, and the demonstrations manifested themselves throughout Indonesia. This led to several confrontations on the streets between protesters and security forces, and recriminations over the violence. The protests culminated in the military allowing Megawati's supporters to take over PDI headquarters in Jakarta, with a pledge of no further demonstrations.

Suharto allowed the occupation of PDI headquarters to go on for almost a month, as attentions were also on Jakarta due to a set of high-profile ASEAN meetings scheduled to take place there. Capitalizing on this, Megawati supporters organized "democracy forums" with several speakers at the site. On July 26, officers of the military, Suryadi, and Suharto openly aired their disgust with the forums.^[60]

On July 27, police, soldiers, and persons claiming to be Suryadi supporters stormed the headquarters. Several Megawati supporters were killed, and over two-hundred arrested and tried under the Anti-Subversion and Hate-Spreading laws. The day would become known as "Black Saturday" and mark the beginning of a renewed crackdown by the New Order government against supporters of democracy, now called the "Reformasi" or Reformation.^[61]

[edit]Economic crisis and Suharto's resignation

In 1997 and 1998, Indonesia was the country hardest hit by the East Asian Financial Crisis,^[62] which had dire consequences for the Indonesian economy and society, and Suharto's presidency. At the same time, the country suffered a severe drought and some of the largest forest fires in history burned in Kalimantan and Sumatra. The rupiah, the Indonesian currency, took a sharp dive in value. Suharto came under scrutiny from international lending institutions, chiefly the World Bank, International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the United States, over longtime embezzlement of funds and some protectionist policies. In December, Suharto's government signed a letter of intent to the IMF, pledging to enact austerity measures, including cuts to public services and removal of subsidies, in return for receiving the aid of the IMF and other donors. Prices for goods such as kerosene and rice, and fees for public services including education rose dramatically. The effects were exacerbated by widespread corruption. The austerity measures approved by Suharto had started to erode domestic confidence with the New Order^[63] and led to popular protests.

Suharto stood for re-election by parliament for the seventh time in March 1998, justifying it on the grounds of the necessity of his leadership during the crisis. The parliament approved a new term. This sparked protests and riots throughout the country, now termed the Indonesian 1998 Revolution. Dissent within the ranks of his own Golkar party and the military finally weakened Suharto, and on May 21 he stood down from power.^[64] He was replaced by his deputy Jusuf Habibie.

President Habibie quickly assembled a cabinet. One of its main tasks was to re-establish International Monetary Fund and donor community support for an economic stabilization program. He moved quickly to release political prisoners and lift some controls on freedom of speech and association. Elections for the national, provincial, and sub-provincial parliaments were held on June 7, 1999. For the national parliament,Indonesian Democratic Party-Struggle (PDI-P, led by Sukarno's daughter Megawati Sukarnoputri) won 34% of the vote; Golkar (Suharto's party; formerly the only legal party of government) 22%; United Development Party (PPP, led by Hamzah Haz) 12%; and National Awakening Party (PKB, led by Abdurrahman Wahid) 10%.

[edit]Politics since 1999

Indonesian 2009 election ballot, since 2004 Indonesian vote their president directly.

In October 1999, the People's Consultative Assembly (MPR), which consists of the 500-member Parliament plus 200 appointed members, elected Abdurrahman Wahid, commonly referred to as "Gus Dur" as President, and Megawati Sukarnoputri as Vice President, for 5-year terms. Wahid named his first Cabinet in early November 1999 and a reshuffled, second Cabinet in August 2000. President Wahid's government continued to pursue democratization and to encourage renewed economic growth under challenging conditions. In addition to continuing economic malaise, his government faced regional, interethnic, and interreligious conflict, particularly in Aceh, the Maluku Islands, and Irian Jaya. In West Timor, the problems of displaced East Timorese and violence by pro-Indonesian East Timorese militias caused considerable humanitarian and social problems. An increasingly assertive Parliament frequently challenged President Wahid's policies and prerogatives, contributing to a lively and sometimes rancorous national political debate.

During the People's Consultative Assembly's first annual session in August 2000, President Wahid gave an account of his government's performance. On January 29, 2001 thousands of student protesters stormed parliament grounds and demanded that President Abdurrahman Wahid resign due to alleged involvement in corruption scandals. Under pressure from the Assembly to improve management and coordination within the government, he issued a presidential decree giving Vice President Megawati control over the day-to-day administration of government. Soon after, Megawati Sukarnoputri assumed the presidency on July 23. In 2004, Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono won Indonesia's first direct Presidential election and in 2009 he was electedto a second term.

[edit]Terrorism

Main article: Terrorism in Indonesia

As a multi-ethnic and multi-culture democratic country with majority of moderate muslim population, Indonesia faces the challenges to deal with terrorism that linked to global militant Islamic movement. The Jemaah Islamiyah (JI) militant Islamic organization that aspired for the establishment of a Daulah Islamiyah^[65] that encompassed whole Southeast Asia including Indonesia, is responsible for series of terrorist attacks in Indonesia. This terrorist organization that linked to Al-Qaeda, was responsible for the Bali bombings in 2002 and 2005, as well asJakarta bombings in 2003, 2004, and 2009. Indonesian government, people and authorities has eversince tried to crack down the terrorist cells in Indonesia.

[edit]Tsunami disaster and Aceh peace deal

See also: Effect of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake on Indonesia

On 26 December 2004, a massive earthquake and tsunami devastated parts of northern Sumatra, particularly Aceh. Partly as a result of the need for cooperation and peace during the recovery from the tsunami in Aceh, peace talks between the Indonesian government and the Free Aceh Movement (GAM) were restarted. Accords signed in Helsinki created a framework for military de-escalation in which the government has reduced its military presence, as members of GAM's armed wing decommission their weapons and apply for amnesty. The agreement also allows for Acehnese nationalist forces to form their own party, and other autonomy measures.